Earth Science Malaysia (ESMY)

Road infrastructural is one of the most important economic indices for development of a country. Therefore in-situ cone penetration test and laboratory soil analysis were performed at two failed segments along Ifon-Benin highway, with the aim of determining cause(s) and extent of the failure. The cone penetration test was carried out to a depth of about 20 m with a lateral spacing of 20 m along the roadway. The laboratory tests conducted were grain size analysis, Atterberg limit test, compaction test, California Bearing Ratio, and undrained unconfined triaxial test. The results revealed that all the soil parameters fell short of the federal ministry of works and housing specification of Nigeria, with plasticity index (>20%), % fines (>35%), CBR values (<80%) recommended, angle of friction and cohesion are less than minimum standard of 30° and 50 Kpa respectively. The CPT revealed predominant sandy silt to clayey silt topsoil and clay substratum with compressive strength of 20 – 40 KN/m2. The water level is higher than 3 m, consequently far below the road foundation baseline. Findings showed that the upper 6 m of the failed segments has been seriously affected by erosion and flooding. Subsequently the process resulted into excessive settlement of the silt/clayey-subgrade soil underneath the pavement structure. This makes the highway to settle largely under traffic load. In addition, incessant heavy flooding around the embankment/shoulder of the highway might have induced the failure, leading to looseness, and less-cohesion of the layers which invariably reduces subgrade support and weakens various pavement layers.

This research conducted in the Upper East Region of Ghana characterizes Termitaria and residual clays from Navrongo to establish effective fluoride adsorbent from boreholes in Bongo area. Specific objectives are to determine (1) geochemical and mineralogical compositions of the clays using ICP-MS and X-ray diffraction devices, respectively; (2) fluoride degradation in groundwater using a Batch test (3) water quality after fluoride removal. The Batch test uses 250 ml of groundwater with 2.29 mg/l fluoride and clay masses of 25, 50, 100 and 200 grams to perform within a minimum and varying time of 10 minutes to a maximum of 120 minutes. Results indicate enrichments of major elements in Termitaria clay and trace elements in residual clay. Fluoride reduces to 0.778 mg/l and 0.294 mg/l at a mass of 0.8 kg/l over 80 minutes for Termitaria and residual clays, respectively. Optimum defluoridation time occurs within an hour in the pH range of 7.83 to 8.04. Quartz-hematite-magnetite-illite-montmorillonite suite occurs in residual clay with defluoridation capacity of 66.25 %, while quartz-illite-montmorillonite suite occurs in Termitaria clay with defluoridation capacity of 87.25 %, and constitute the more efficient adsorbent. TDS and conductivity are within WHO standard guidelines, which confirms the clays as non-toxic.

This study investigates auriferous granitoids from the Esuajah and Fobinso pits within the Ayanfuri environment in the Paleoproterozoic Kumasi basin. The aim is to establish the geochemical characteristics of the granitoid gold ores and the possible deposit type which may influence mineral project development. 13 major and 51 trace elements were analyzed using XRF and ICP-MS devices, respectively. The granitoids are mainly classified as granodiorite that crystallized from a calc-alkaline magma series. The Fobinso granodiorite derived from the partial melting of the Birimian metasedimentary rocks, while the Esuajah granitoid derived from igneous rock melts. The granitoid are linked to magma source depleted in mantle material that contains crustal components through subduction processes. Major oxides of the granitoid vary lowly from the average background values derived for basin type granitoid in such terrains. Generally, the granitoid are enriched in Large Ion Lithophile Elements (LILE), while High Field Strength Elements (HFSE) and base metals are within background values when compared to Primitive Mantle (PM) values. Gold mineralisation is associated with Ag, As, Bi, Sb, Te, Pb and S in the peraluminous granitoids. Geochemical characteristics and field observations identify the deposit style as an orogenic related gold deposit type.

This study investigates basin-type granitoid samples from the north-eastern margin of the Kumasi Basin in Ghana to establish their source and geodynamic setting. Petrographic analysis, TAS and A/NK-A/CNK plots classify the granitoids as metaluminous quartz diorite, metaluminous granodiorite, and peraluminous monzogranite; and exhibiting I-type signatures. These rocks are formed by magma differentiation and/or partial melting at various stages. Distribution patterns of incompatible elements and the positive Eu/Eu* anomalies of 1.15 and 1.47 exhibited by quartz diorite and granodiorite, respectively, the values suggest the rocks crystallized from melts formed in a water-saturated environment. The negative Eu/Eu* anomaly exhibited by monzogranite indicate fractionation of plagioclase in the final stages of the magma evolution. The water-rich environment is probably due to dewatering of the basin’s foreland volcaniclastic sediments during regional subsidence, burial and metamorphism. K2O enrichments and wide variations suggest that the granodiorite and monzogranite are formed from fractional crystallization and/or crustal assimilation of the continental crust by under-plating dioritic magma. The higher Al2O3/TiO2 enrichment and the shift from metaluminous to peraluminous in the monzogranite suggest a longer residence time within the continental crust, during which fractional crystallization and the assimilation of pre-existing crustal components into the dioritic magma that resulted in the formation of the monzogranite. The study requires replication at other areas within the basin to generate enough data to enhance metallogenic studies in the terrain.

This manuscript primarily focuses on the constraints associated with the extended version of Darcy’s law that is used to describe the multiphase flow through a porous media; and in particular, a petroleum reservoir. This manuscript clearly brings out the basics associated with the usage of Darcy’s law, and reasons out the inapplicability of the Navier-Stokes Equation in order to describe the momentum conservation in a typical petroleum reservoir. Further, this work highlights the essence of continuum-based Darcy’s macroscopic-scale equation with that of Navier-Stokes’s microscopic-scale equation. Further, the absence of capillary forces in original Darcy’s equation and extending the same by considering the concept of ‘capillary pressure’ in order to accommodate the multi-phase flow has several critical constraints associated with it. In this manuscript, all these constraints or limitations have been posed in the form of a list of basic queries that need to be addressed or at least to be understood with clarity, when applying the multi-phase fluid flow equations associated with a petroleum reservoir. This study is limited to an oil-water two-phase system.

The detailed petrological investigation of Samana Suk Formation from Hazara Basin, Pakistan was carried out to elaborate its microfacies. The Samana Suk Formation is mostly composed of fine to coarse-grained, limestone with dolomite in parts developed as a secondary diagenetic fabric. Twenty-five samples were studied from Thandiani Section, and five microfacies with seven sub microfacies were identified. The identified microfacies include Peloidal Foraminiferal Mudstone, Ooidal Peloidal Mudstone, Bioclastic Planktonic Mudstone as Submicrofacies, Peloidal Wackstone, Ooidal Wackstone, Intraclastic Wackstone as Sub Microfacies, Peloidal-Packstone Microfacies, Ooidal Mud-Wack Microfacies and Peloidal-Ooidal Wack-Pack Submicrofacies. Diagenetic features, such as Stylolites, Calcite Veins, Fractures, Dolomitization, Cementation, Compaction and Micritization have been observed in the petrographic study of the samples. The environment of deposition as depicted from the microfacies is Outer ramp for Mudstone, Peloidal Foraminiferal Mudstone, Ooidal to Peloidal Mudstone and Bioclastic Mudstone; Middle ramp for Peloidal Wackstone; Inner ramp for Ooidal Wackstone, Intraclastic Wackstone Peloidal Packstone and Peloidal-Ooidal Wack-Packstone; Inner-Middle ramp for Ooidal-Mud-Wackstone. Based on the microfacies analysis the Samana Suk Formation was interpreted to be deposited in a shallow shelf environment

A total of sixteen Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) surveys and five physicochemical analyses were carried out in selected locations within the Yenagoa Metropolis, in Bayelsa State, Nigeria, to delineate the concentration of ferruginous minerals in freshwater aquifers in the area. For the geophysical survey, the Schlumberger electrode configuration was employed. The resulting data obtained was processed and interpreted using Excel suite, IPI2WIN resistivity, Surfer-11 and Rockworks software. The results revealed four to six geologic layers across the area, and were used to generate geoelectric maps which showed that in most part of the study area, there were uneven distributions of shallow aquifers (4 – 10m), and uneven layers of clay and sandy-silt at varying depths up to 20m. The physicochemical analysis of raw water samples collected from five boreholes located in close proximity to the VES sounding locations were analysed for physical and chemical parameters. Physical parameters tested include colour, conductivity, turbidity, and temperature. Chemical parameters analysed are pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Alkalinity, Total Iron, Carbonate, Chloride, Sulphate, and heavy metals such as copper, chromium, nickel, cadmium, manganese, zinc and lead. The pH was determined using a Mettler Toledo (GmbH 8603 Schwerzenbach) pH meter by direct measurement. An analogue mercury thermometer was used for temperature measurements and a Hach 2100A turbidimeter for turbidity determination. Also, the concentrations of Zinc, Lead, and Copper in the water samples were obtained using the flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. It was observed that the values SO42- , Cl-, Na2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, F- have values below World Health Organization (WHO) standard in all boreholes tested while Mn2+, NH3, PO3−and Fe2+, K+, and Cu2+ have values above WHO standard in some boreholes. The pH values all showed that the water was slightly basic as the values all exceeded the neutral limit 7, with only station showing slightly elevated pH value 9, suggesting the presence of iron bacteria. F-, K+, Fe2+ and Mn2+ have values that exceeded the WHO standard. The results from Physicochemical and geophysical analysis suggest that at depths of 20 – 45m, the concentration of ferruginous minerals is high especially towards the north eastern section of the study area and so drilling should be made to approximate depths of 50 – 80m for minimal iron contamination in the aquifers.

Rock samples of granodiorite from Wasimi were studied in detail to determine the minerals, mineral associations and the different micro-texture present in order to unravel the processes that were involved during the cooling of the magma. The following minerals were observed; plagioclase feldspars, K-feldspars, biotite, pyroxene, amphiboles, with zircon and sphene as accessory minerals. The pyroxene are engulfed in amphiboles and have reaction rims. Pyroxene occur as inclusions in plagioclase feldspars. Amphiboles are poikilitic with inclusions of quartz. Symplectic texture exits between the following minerals; plagioclase and K-feldspar, biotite and quartz, plagioclase and amphibole. The plagioclase feldspars have fractured and bent twin lamellae. Crystals of plagioclase feldspars are zoned and also exhibit both Carlsbad and albite form of twinning. It can be said that there was an initial slow cooling of the magma which was responsible for the large crystals of feldspars which was later followed by rapid cooling as the magma rises close to the surface which gave rise to zoned plagioclase feldspars and indication of high level intrusive.

The soil underneath any type of structure e.g. Building, road, highways etc. should be able to resist loadings, if not so it is subjected to failure. Usually the soil at the site is not ideal from viewpoint of engineering. An approach to this problem, is to improve the soils or to adopt soil stabilization. Various methods of soil stabilization have been developed and in practice across the world. In this research an attempt was made to use the agricultural waste to improve the soil stability, as in Punjab agricultural waste is available in excess. In Punjab, major crops are wheat and rice. So wheat straw is available in excess in Punjab. In Punjab, mostly we have clayey soil. We select the representative samples from different areas of Punjab namely Kasur, Lahore and Sheikhupura and performed certain tests on these samples. The wheat straw totally failed in enhancing compaction, but compressive stress increased up to some extent. So it can be utilized in slopes of embankments of highways, railways etc. but can’t be used in construction of structures. So it is recommended that the future students should very fine wheat straw to make the project better and having a more in depth analysis.

The objectives of study was to determine hydrochemistry of groundwater in Okitipupa and environs to assess the quality of groundwater for drinking, domestic and irrigation. A total of 27 groundwater samples were collected randomly from different sources and analyzed for major cations and anions. The domination of cations and anions was in the order of K>Na>Ca>Mg and SO4>Cl >HCO3>NO3. The hydrogeochemical facies indicate three dominant facies: non-carbonate hardness exceeds 50 %; non-carbonate alkali exceeds 50 %; and transition zone with no one cation-anion pair exceeds 50 %, while precipitation is the dominant process in the hydrogeochemical evolution of the groundwater samples. The WQI calculated exhibits good (60 %) and poor (40 %) quality water for drinking and domestic purposes. For irrigation assessment, residual sodium carbonate values revealed good irrigation, permeability index values indicates suitable and marginal class, sodium absorption ratio, Kelly ratio, and %Na indicate good irrigation water. The processes controlling the groundwater chemistry are mixing of saline with fresh water and anthropogenic contamination; weathering and cation exchange; mineral precipitation/anthropogenic pollution; and groundwater dilution and mineral dissolution. Consequently the water is fairly suitable for drinking/domestic, and good for irrigation purposes.